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volume 156, issue 8, august 2022
1. title: recovering from severe drought in the drylands of ethiopia: impact of comprehensive resilience programming
authors: lisa c. smith, timothy r. frankenberger
abstract: developing-country households are facing an increasingly challenging set of shocks�including climate, economic, political, and health shocks�that in combination present a novel threat to their livelihoods and well-being, and thus to international development progress. there is a growing need to strengthen the evidence base for interventions and programming approaches that bolster households� resilience to such shocks. in response, this paper documents an impact evaluation of the usaid-funded �pastoralist areas resilience improvement and market expansion� (prime) project implemented from 2012 to 2017 in one of the most shock-prone areas of the world, the drylands of ethiopia. the project�s overall goal was to reduce poverty and hunger by enhancing households� ability to recover from recurring climate shocks and their downstream economic impacts. as it were, soon after its inception, the drylands were hit by an exceptionally harsh and prolonged shock, a series of multiple, back-to-back, severe droughts.
the droughts led to a sharp drop in households� well-being, measured here by their food security. using difference-in-difference propensity score matching (did-psm) in one of the first causal resilience evaluations, this paper demonstrates that, nevertheless, the project's resilience-strengthening interventions had a positive impact on their ability to recover, slowing the decline in food security considerably. delving deeper into how this impact was achieved, the paper finds that two programming approaches optimized resilience impacts. first, �comprehensive resilience programming�, whereby interventions spanning multiple sectors were implemented simultaneously in the same geographical areas, made a major difference. second, while interventions were mainly implemented at a systems-level (e.g., establishing veterinary pharmacies), many households made the decision to actively participate in them. the paper finds that the impact on their resilience was far greater when they did so. the lessons for future resilience projects are that (1) greater impacts can be achieved by taking advantage of the synergies induced when interventions are layered cross-sectorally, and (2) projects with systems-level interventions should pro-actively plan for the direct participation of households so they can take full advantage of their benefits and thereby achieve greater resilience to shocks. the paper also offers some lessons for future resilience impact evaluations.
2. title: from fees to free: user fee removal, maternal health care utilization and child health in zambia
authors: yohan renard
abstract: despite recent progress, about 295,000 women in the world still die each year from pregnancy-related causes, and about 4.1 million children die before reaching the age of one. 99% of these deaths occur in developing countries. in 2006 the zambian government removed user fees in public and mission health facilities in 54 out of 72 districts, and then extended this policy to rural parts of unaffected districts in 2007. i exploit the staggered implementation of the policy to assess its impact on maternal health care utilization and child health outcomes. using a difference-in-differences estimation strategy, i find a 43% increase in the probability to give birth in a medical facility following the removal and a 36% increase in the probability of being assisted by a skilled birth attendant during childbirth. these positive effects decrease with household�s distance from the nearest health facility. in terms of child health, chronic malnutrition decreased by 8% and the abolition of user fees reduced newborn mortality risk only for those living close to a health facility providing essential emergency obstetric care and child health services. access improved but returns to formal health services remained rather limited, highlighting the importance of addressing supply-side constraints to generate substantial gains in population health.
3. title: does a joint united nations microfinance �plus� program empower female farmers in rural ethiopia? evidence using the pro-weai
authors: marya hillesland, susan kaaria, erdgin mane, mihret alemu, vanya slavchevska
abstract: microfinance is thought to be an effective tool for empowering women. yet, previous studies that evaluate microfinance programs have mixed findings. this is in part because there are large variations in the interventions that are evaluated, but also that there is not a standardized metric of empowerment that is implemented consistently throughout the literature. this study investigates the effectiveness of a joint united nations program aimed at empowering rural women through women-run rural savings and credit cooperatives in oromia, ethiopia, using the project-women�s empowerment in agricultural index. building on more than a decade of studies and validation of different versions of the women�s empowerment in agricultural index, the tool aims to provide a standardized and comparable metric of women�s empowerment that is flexible enough to measure impacts of development projects. this study finds that the program had a positive impact on intrinsic agency for the beneficiaries with continued access to credit through the rusaccos between the baseline and endline. for this group of beneficiaries, the program seemed to increase the trust and respect between spouses. there is a second group of beneficiaries that appeared to have dropped out at the initial stages of the program or lost access to credit, suggesting there may have been problems with the program or possible resistance by spouses or community members. the study expands our understanding of how to measure women�s empowerment impacts of development projects within the context of a smallholder agricultural households.
4. title: is chinese aid different?
authors: anke hoeffler, olivier sterck
abstract: china�s involvement in african countries has been criticized for being guided by self-interest rather than recipient need or merit. for the period 2000�2012, we compare china�s aid allocation behaviour to that of the five largest donor countries globally: france, germany, japan, the uk, and the usa. we use regression analysis and a rigorous variance decomposition method to measure the importance of various factors in predicting aid commitments. we find that donors differ markedly in how they allocate aid. while germany, japan, the usa, and the uk assign high importance to recipient need, france�s and china�s allocation models are, for a large part, driven by variables that relate to self-interest: trade in the case of france, and the adherence to the �one-china policy� in the case of china. however, china is not a purely selfish donor. as most western donors, china commits more aid to poorer countries. furthermore, we find no evidence that commercial interests, such as trade or access to natural resources, determine chinese aid allocation. this latter result contrasts with western donors, which allocate more aid to their trade partners. france and the uk also commit significantly more aid to their former colonies. in conclusion, the claim that china�s aid allocation is different must be qualified.
5. title: irrigation infrastructure and trust: evidence from natural and lab-in-the-field experiments in rural communities
authors: keitaro aoyagi, yasuyuki sawada, masahiro shoji
abstract: does irrigation infrastructure lead to trust, and how does this happen? we approach these questions by testing two processes of trust formation: particularized trust built on repeated interactions of rational individuals and generalized trust based on arational habits. to identify the causal relationship between farmers� irrigation infrastructure access and trust, we conducted an incentivized trust game with beneficiaries of the irrigated land settlement program in rural sri lanka, where land allocation was arguably random. two findings emerged. first, trust among community members monotonically increases with each farmer�s years of access to irrigation, regardless of social relationships. second, the nexus between irrigation access years and trust does not necessarily differ between in-group and out-group members. these findings suggest the relative significance of generalized trust formation by habits in irrigated communities, although we cannot fully rule out the possible particularized trust formation through repeated interactions. since generalized trust is essential to facilitate market transactions, our finding is especially relevant when formulating infrastructure investment policies in developing countries.
6. title: the impact of coffee leaf rust on migration by smallholder coffee farmers in guatemala
authors: samuel i. dupre, celia a. harvey, margaret b. holland
abstract: climate change is driving severe outbreaks of crop diseases, decimating agricultural production, and disrupting rural livelihoods globally. while the patterns of agricultural disease outbreaks are well documented, less is known about the extent to which climate change-driven diseases are affecting crop production, disrupting farmer livelihoods, and potentially altering farmer migration patterns. in this study, we investigated the impacts of an extended outbreak (2007�2016) of coffee leaf rust (clr, hemileia vastatrix) on the livelihoods and migration decisions of smallholder coffee farmers in ten communities in eastern guatemala, comparing coffee farming households from communities that had a history of migration with those that did not. we used a mixed-methods approach to assess the impacts of clr on coffee production and farmer livelihoods, documented the migration decisions of household members, and compared migration rates and destinations between migrant communities and previously non-migrant communities. we also assessed the effects of crop loss, household wealth, and information access on the use of migration as a coping strategy among affected households. we found that smallholder farmer households lost an average of 71% (se = 2%) of their coffee production during their self-defined worst year of clr impact. household migration almost doubled in response to clr, both in communities that had a history of migration and in historically non-migrant communities. migration was more likely among households that experienced greater crop losses of due to clr. in contrast, migration was lower among households that had greater access to information. our study demonstrates the potential for climate-driven disease outbreaks to significantly impact farmers� livelihoods and increase farmer migration from rural regions, and highlights the need for urgent action to support farmers to adapt to these changing conditions.
7. title: divergent impacts of the grain to green program, landholdings, and demographic factors on livelihood diversification in rural china
authors: madeline m. giefer, li an
abstract: china�s ambitious grain to green program (gtgp) pays farmers to retire ecologically vulnerable cropland in pursuit of environmental recovery, with an added benefit of economic diversification. while there is compelling evidence that gtgp has promoted off-farm employment in a broad sense, little is known about what types of work participants take and whether these labor transfers will continue after payments expire. studies also tend to focus on livelihood diversification through urban migration while ignoring the nuances of the local job market. rooted in a �labor-increasing� versus �labor-decreasing� framework, this study finds divergent effects of gtgp across local employment sectors. while gtgp facilitates nonagricultural employment, it also acts as a possibly temporary replacement for agricultural jobs and does not significantly encourage entrepreneurship, which may hinder post-program retirement of cropland. results also show cropland holdings, household size, gender, marital status, and especially education are influential predictors of labor allocation, suggesting the parcels most likely to remain retired long-term belong to male-headed households with fewer, better-educated members including unmarried young people. in addition, there is much space to improve gtgp�s income-diversifying effects by improving access to education and incorporating concrete supports and incentives for local off-farm employment and small-scale entrepreneurship.
8. title: women�s political empowerment and economic growth
authors: sirianne dahlum, carl henrik knutsen, valeriya mechkova
abstract: we investigate whether and how women�s political empowerment relates to technological change, the main driver of long-term economic growth. we argue that three aspects of empowerment � descriptive representation, civil liberties protection, and civil society participation � advance technological change and thereby economic growth through (a) increasing the number and variability of new ideas introduced in the economy and (b) improving the selection of more efficient ideas. drawing on data from 182 countries and 221 years, we test various implications from our argument. women�s political empowerment is positively related to subsequent economic growth. this relationship persists across various model specifications and when accounting for different potential confounders. the three sub-components of empowerment are also, individually, related to growth, although not as strongly as the aggregated concept. the relationship is retained across different contexts, but is clearer for �non-western� countries and in earlier time periods. we also find evidence that women�s political empowerment enhances technological change.
9. title: does balancing gender composition lead to more prosocial outcomes? experimental evidence of equality in public goods and extraction games from rural kenya
authors: yuta j. masuda, gina waterfield, carolina castilla, shiteng kang, wei zhang
abstract: there is resurging interest in community-based natural resource management (cbnrm) as an approach for achieving global biodiversity conservation goals. yet, cbnrm remains dominated by men, elevating the importance of designing programs that give voice and agency to women. arguments for increasing gender balance within cbnrm often assume women have strong preferences for equality and altruism and would therefore be better environmental stewards. evidence on the effect of gender balance on commons management, however, remains mixed. we report on two framed field experimental games with community members directly engaged in the use and management of natural resources in rural kenya. participants were randomly assigned to single-gender (all male n = 23; all female n = 28) or mixed gender groups (n = 36) to assess the role of gender composition on group and individual decisions. the two games provide unique insights into the give (public good games) and take (extraction games) decisions common in natural resource management. we find mixed gender groups tend to achieve more socially optimal outcomes than single-gender groups in the public goods game context, but all male groups tended to conserve the most in the extraction game. women are not necessarily more likely to make prosocial decisions than men, and factors such as framing and social relations affect decisions. our results indicate gender composition affects group decision-making and is therefore important for commons management, and that mixed gender groups can be more effective than single-gender groups. improving gender balance in cbnrm may help achieve more desirable outcomes from a social and conservation perspective but understanding decision-making contexts is critical.
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