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kallinikos, jannis. abstract: data are no longer simply a component of administrative and managerial work but a pervasive resource and medium through which organizations come to know and act upon the contingencies they confront. we theorize how the ongoing technological developments reinforce the traditional functions of data as instruments of management and control but also reframe and extend their role. by rendering data as technical entities, digital technologies transform the process of knowing and the knowledge functions data fulfil in socioeconomic life. these functions are most of the times mediated by putting together disperse and steadily updatable data in more stable entities we refer to as data objects. users, customers, products, and physical machines rendered as data objects become the technical and cognitive means through which organizational knowledge, patterns, and practices develop. such conditions loosen the dependence of data from domain knowledge, reorder the relative significance of internal versus external references in organizations, and contribute to a paradigmatic contemporary development that we identify with the decentering of organizations of which digital platforms are an important specimen. 3. title: expanding the locus of resistance: understanding the co-constitution of control and resistance in the gig economy. authors: cameron, lindsey d.; rahman, hatim. abstract: existing literature examines control and resistance in the context of service organizations that rely on both managers and customers to control workers during the execution of work. digital platform companies, however, eschew managers in favor of algorithmically mediated customer control�that is, customers rate workers, and algorithms tally and track these ratings to control workers' future platform-based opportunities. how has this shift in the distribution of control among platforms, customers, and workers affected the relationship between control and resistance? drawing on workers' experiences from a comparative ethnography of two of the largest platform companies, we find that platform use of algorithmically mediated customer control has expanded the service encounter such that organizational control and workers' resistance extend well beyond the execution of work. we find that workers have the most latitude to deploy resistance early in the labor process but must adjust their resistance tactics because their ability to resist decreases in each subsequent stage of the labor process. our paper, thus, develops understanding of resistance by examining the relationship between control and resistance before, during, and after a task, providing insight into how control and resistance function in the gig economy. we also demonstrate the limitations of platforms' reliance on algorithmically mediated customer control by illuminating how workers' everyday interactions with customers can influence and manipulate algorithms in ways that platforms cannot always observe. 4. title: in the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king: knowledge brokerage in the age of learning algorithms. authors: waardenburg, lauren; huysman, marleen; sergeeva, anastasia v. abstract: this paper presents research on how knowledge brokers attempt to translate opaque algorithmic predictions. the research is based on a 31-month ethnographic study of the implementation of a learning algorithm by the dutch police to predict the occurrence of crime incidents and offers one of the first empirical accounts of algorithmic brokers. we studied a group of intelligence officers, who were tasked with brokering between a machine learning community and a user community by translating the outcomes of the learning algorithm to police management. we found that, as knowledge brokers, they performed different translation practices over time and enacted increasingly influential brokerage roles, namely, those of messenger, interpreter, and curator. triggered by an impassable knowledge boundary yielded by the black-boxed machine learning, the brokers eventually acted like "kings in the land of the blind" and substituted the algorithmic predictions with their own judgments. by emphasizing the dynamic and influential nature of algorithmic brokerage work, we contribute to the literature on knowledge brokerage and translation in the age of learning algorithms. 5. title: waging war from remote cubicles: how workers cope with technologies that disrupt the meaning and morality of their work. authors: rauch, madeleine; ansari, shahzad. abstract: technologies are known to alter social structures in the workplace, reconfigure roles and relationships, and disrupt status hierarchies. however, less attention has been given to how an emerging technology disrupts the meaning and moral values that tether people to their work and render it meaningful. to understand how workers respond to such an emerging technology, we undertook an inductive, qualitative study of military personnel working in unmanned aerial vehicles, or drone operations, for the u.s. air force. we draw on multiple data sources, including personal diaries kept by personnel involved in drone operations. we identified three characteristics of drone technology: remote-split operations, remote piloting of unmanned vehicles, and interaction through iconic representations. our analysis suggests that drone technology has revolutionized warfare by (1) creating distanciated intimacy, (2) dissolving traditional spatio-temporal boundaries between work and personal life, and (3) redefining the legal and moral parameters of work. drone program workers identified with these changes to their working environment in contradictory ways, which evoked emotional ambivalence about right and wrong. however, their organization gave them little help in alleviating their conflicting feelings. we illuminate how workers cope with such ambivalence when a technology transforms the meaning and morality of their work. we extend theory by showing that workers' responses to a changed working environment as a result of a remote technology are not just based on how the technology changes workers' tasks, roles, and status but also on how it affects their moral values. 6. title: alternative futures for the digital transformation: a macro-level schumpeterian perspective. authors: bodro~i, zlatko; s. adler, paul. abstract: this paper develops and deploys a theoretical framework for assessing the prospects of a cluster of technologies driving what is often called the digital transformation. there is considerable uncertainty regarding this transformation's future trajectory, and to understand and bound that uncertainty, we build on schumpeter's macro-level theory of economy-wide, technological revolutions and on the work of several scholars who have extended that theory. in this perspective, such revolutions' trajectories are shaped primarily by the interaction of changes within and between three spheres�technology, organization, and public policy. we enrich this account by identifying the critical problems and the collective choices among competing solutions to those problems that together shape the trajectory of each revolution. we argue that the digital transformation represents a new phase in the wider arc of the information and communication technology revolution�a phase promising much wider deployment�and that the trajectory of this deployment depends on collective choices to be made in the organization and public policy spheres. combining in a 2 � 2 matrix the two main alternative solutions on offer in each of these two spheres, we identify four scenarios for the future trajectory of the digital transformation: digital authoritarianism, digital oligarchy, digital localism, and digital democracy. we discuss how these scenarios can help us trace and understand the future trajectory of the digital transformation. 7. title: to engage or not to engage with ai for critical judgments: how professionals deal with opacity when using ai for medical diagnosis. authors: lebovitz, sarah; lifshitz-assaf, hila; levina, natalia. abstract: artificial intelligence (ai) technologies promise to transform how professionals conduct knowledge work by augmenting their capabilities for making professional judgments. we know little, however, about how human-ai augmentation takes place in practice. yet, gaining this understanding is particularly important when professionals use ai tools to form judgments on critical decisions. we conducted an in-depth field study in a major u.s. hospital where ai tools were used in three departments by diagnostic radiologists making breast cancer, lung cancer, and bone age determinations. the study illustrates the hindering effects of opacity that professionals experienced when using ai tools and explores how these professionals grappled with it in practice. in all three departments, this opacity resulted in professionals experiencing increased uncertainty because ai tool results often diverged from their initial judgment without providing underlying reasoning. only in one department (of the three) did professionals consistently incorporate ai results into their final judgments, achieving what we call engaged augmentation. these professionals invested in ai interrogation practices�practices enacted by human experts to relate their own knowledge claims to ai knowledge claims. professionals in the other two departments did not enact such practices and did not incorporate ai inputs into their final decisions, which we call unengaged "augmentation." our study unpacks the challenges involved in augmenting professional judgment with powerful, yet opaque, technologies and contributes to literature on ai adoption in knowledge work. 8. title: algorithm-augmented work and domain experience: the countervailing forces of ability and aversion. authors: allen, ryan; choudhury, prithwiraj. abstract: past research offers mixed perspectives on whether domain experience helps or hurts algorithm-augmented worker performance. reconciling these perspectives, we theorize that intermediate levels of domain experience are optimal for algorithm-augmented performance, due to the interplay between two countervailing forces�ability and aversion. although domain experience can increase performance via increased ability to complement algorithmic advice (e.g., identifying inaccurate predictions), it can also decrease performance via increased aversion to accurate algorithmic advice. because ability developed through learning by doing increases at a decreasing rate, and algorithmic aversion is more prevalent among experts, we theorize that algorithm-augmented performance will first rise with increasing domain experience, then fall. we test this by exploiting a within-subjects experiment in which corporate information technology support workers were assigned to resolve problems both manually and using an algorithmic tool. we confirm that the difference between performance with the algorithmic tool versus without the tool was characterized by an inverted u-shape over the range of domain experience. only workers with moderate domain experience did significantly better using the algorithm than resolving tickets manually. these findings highlight that, even if greater domain experience increases workers' ability to complement algorithms, domain experience can also trigger other mechanisms that overcome the positive ability effect and inhibit performance. additional analyses and participant interviews suggest that, even though the highest experience workers had the greatest ability to complement the algorithmic tool, they rejected its advice because they felt greater accountability for possible unintended consequences of accepting algorithmic advice. 9. title: crowd-based accountability: examining how social media commentary reconfigures organizational accountability. authors: karunakaran, arvind; orlikowski, wanda j.; scott, susan v. abstract: organizational accountability is considered critical to organizations' sustained performance and survival. prior research examines the structural and rhetorical responses that organizations use to manage accountability pressures from different constituents. with the emergence of social media, accountability pressures shift from the relatively clear and well-specified demands of identifiable stakeholders to the unclear and unspecified concerns of a pseudonymous crowd. this is further exacerbated by the public visibility of social media, materializing as a stream of online commentary for a distributed audience. in such conditions, the established structural and rhetorical responses of organizations become less effective for addressing accountability pressures. we conducted a multisite comparative study to examine how organizations in two service sectors (emergency response and hospitality) respond to accountability pressures manifesting as social media commentary on two platforms (twitter and tripadvisor). we find organizations responding online to social media commentary while also enacting changes to their practices that recalibrate risk, redeploy resources, and redefine service. these changes produce a diffractive reactivity that reconfigures the meanings, activities, relations, and outcomes of service work as well as the boundaries of organizational accountability. we synthesize these findings in a model of crowd-based accountability and discuss the contributions of this study to research on accountability and organizing in the social media era. 10. title: from lock-in to transformation: a path-centric theory of emerging technology and organizing. authors: pentland, brian t.; yoo, youngjin; recker, jan; kim, inkyu. abstract: we offer a path-centric theory of emerging technology and organizing that addresses a basic question. when does emerging technology lead to transformative change? a path-centric perspective on technology focuses on the patterns of actions afforded by technology in use. we identify performing and patterning as self-reinforcing mechanisms that shape patterns of action in the domain of emerging technology and organizing. we use a dynamic simulation to show that performing and patterning can lead to a wide range of trajectories, from lock-in to transformation, depending on how emerging technology in use influences the pattern of action. when emerging technologies afford new actions that can be flexibly recombined to generate new paths, decisive transformative effects are more likely. by themselves, new affordances are not likely to generate transformation. we illustrate this theory with examples from the practice of pharmaceutical drug discovery. the path-centric perspective offers a new way to think about generativity and the role of affordances in organizing. 11. title: open source collaboration in digital entrepreneurship. authors: lin, yu-kai; maruping, likoebe m. abstract: emerging digital technologies give rise to digital entrepreneurship and the widespread phenomenon of open source collaboration (osc) on github for entrepreneurial pursuits. although openness is a common theme in digital entrepreneurship, it is unclear how digital startups�that is, startups that that have digital artifacts at the core of their business model for value creation and capture�actually realize value from their osc engagement. we develop a theoretical framework to explain how the engagement in osc may affect the value of digital startups and how the effect is contingent on the stage of venture maturity (conception, commercialization, or growth) and the mode of osc engagement (inbound or outbound). in analyses that pool 17,552 matched digital startups with monthly panel observations between 2008 and 2017, we find digital startups in the conception and commercialization stages benefit more from inbound osc whereas the ones in the growth stage benefit more from outbound osc. as digital startups increasingly use osc for ideation, experimentation, and scaling, our contribution is to show whether, when, and how knowledge flows through osc might affect the value of digital startups. we discuss implications for research on organizing for digital entrepreneurship as well as open innovation. 12. title: "making out" while driving: relational and efficiency games in the gig economy. authors: cameron, lindsey d. abstract: on-demand or "gig" workers show up to a workplace without walls, organizational routines, managers, or even coworkers. without traditional organizational scaffolds, how do individuals make meaning of their work in a way that fosters engagement? prior literature suggests that organizational practices, such as recruitment and socialization, foster group belonging and meaningfulness, which subsequently leads to engagement, and that without these practices alienation and attrition ensue. my four-year qualitative study of workers in the largest sector in the on-demand economy (ridehailing) suggests an alternative and more readily available mechanism of engagement�workplace games. through interactions with touchpoints�in this context, the customer and the app�individuals turn their work into games they find meaningful, can control, and "win." in the relational game, workers craft positive customer service encounters, offering gifts and extra services, in the pursuit of high customer ratings, which they track through the app's rating system. in the efficiency game, workers set boundaries with customers, minimizing any "extra" behavior, in the pursuit of maximizing money per time spent driving and they create their own tracking tools outside the app. whereas each game resulted in engagement�as workers were trying to "win"�games were associated with two divergent stances or relationships toward the work, with contrasting implications for retention. my findings embed meaning-making in what is fast-becoming the normal workplace, largely solitary and structured by emerging technologies, and holds insights for explaining why people remain engaged in a line of work typically deemed exploitative. 13. title: transferring knowledge by transferring individuals: innovative technology use and organizational performance in multiunit firms. authors: stadler, christian; helfat, constance e.; verona, gianmario. abstract: transferring individuals who possess relevant knowledge from one organizational unit to another�a form of resource redeployment�may help to overcome impediments to knowledge transfer. despite the promise of this mechanism, which often occurs through intrafirm geographic mobility, relatively little research has examined how the knowledge and expertise of individuals interacts with the organizational resources of the units to which individuals move. this study examines whether intrafirm geographic mobility improves organizational performance by providing a conduit for the transfer of knowledge while accounting for the interaction between individual knowledge and factors at the organization-unit level of analysis. we analyze the performance effects of the transfer of engineers who have expertise in innovative process technologies. the results from a large multinational company show that the innovative process technology-related expertise of an individual engineer who moves to a new organizational unit is positively associated with the performance of that unit, suggesting that intrafirm geographic mobility improves organizational performance by providing a conduit for the transfer of knowledge. the results also show that the technology-related knowledge of engineers is a substitute for organization-level factors when a unit uses only technologies with which it is already familiar, whereas the technology-related knowledge of engineers is a complement to organization-level factors when units introduce new technologies. thus, individuals who bring novel expertise to their organizational units through intrafirm mobility may be important vehicles for organizational learning and building new competences, helping to diffuse best practices. 14. title: architectural search and innovation. authors: albert, daniel; siggelkow, nicolaj. abstract: product innovation can result from the novel design and combination of product components as well as from changing the underlying architecture: that is, the way components interact with each other. even though previous studies have shown that architectural change can constitute a powerful source of innovation, little insight exists on how organizations should engage in architectural search itself. in this paper, using computer simulation, we explore underlying mechanisms of architectural search. we find that contrary to search for component combinations, architectural search provides greater performance improvements the narrower the search scope, regardless of product complexity. moreover, our theory and findings suggest a more differentiated typology of architectural innovation. although narrow architectural search often leads to pure architectural innovations that do not require substantial component changes, broader architectural search often leads to composite architectural innovation (i.e., architectural innovations that typically render existing component designs suboptimal but allow for new high-performing component combinations to arise). lastly, although narrow architectural search outperforms broad architectural search in the long run, in the short run broad architectural search can have performance advantages. 15. title: how property rights matter to firm resource investment: evidence from china's property law enactment. authors: he, wenlong; tong, tony w.; xu, mingtao. abstract: although property-rights theory has long been used to explain firms' ownership of resources, research on the channels through which property rights affect heterogeneous firms' investment in building resources remains scarce. leveraging a property-law enactment in china, we find that strengthening property-rights protection leads private firms to make greater intangible and tangible asset investment compared with state-owned firms and that these effects are mediated by external equity and debt financing. further, we unpack resource heterogeneity by explicating key differences between intangible and tangible assets, and we document an alignment between asset intangibility and financing approaches such that for intangible asset investment, equity plays a larger mediation role, whereas for tangible asset investment, debt's mediating effect is greater. we contribute to the strategy literature by using property-rights theory to link together asset intangibility and financing approaches and by showing that the strength of property-rights protection affects firms' resource investment and shapes firm heterogeneity. 16. title: managing boundaries in multiteam structures: from parochialism to integrated pluralism. authors: de vries, thomas a.; van der vegt, gerben s.; bunderson, j. stuart; walter, frank; essens, peter j. m. d. abstract: multiteam structures are increasingly used to coordinate complex tasks between different groups. to realize this potential, however, the members of a multiteam structure must manage a complex set of boundary relations within, between, and beyond the various constituent teams�boundary relations that can be cooperative, competitive, or some combination of both at the same time. this multimethod study provides insight into how multiteam structures can meet this challenge. specifically, we examined how the different organizations that utilize and support the dutch railway system learned to manage boundaries as they transitioned from a centralized, arms-length structure to a colocated, multiteam structure for coordinating disruption responses (i.e., the rail operations control center (rocc)). in part 1 of our study, qualitative analyses of interview, observational, and archival data suggested that learning to manage boundaries within the rocc was not simple or linear but evolved through trial and error during various phases. ultimately, the rocc developed an approach we call "integrated pluralism," establishing a dynamic balance that combines both collaborative and competitive approaches to boundary management. in this manner, the rocc teams were able to attain integrated solutions and coordinated task accomplishment while simultaneously defending internal team operations and home organization interests. in part 2, we employed an interrupted time series analysis to demonstrate that the implementation of the rocc resulted in significant performance improvements. consistent with the results of part 1, we found that these improvements emerged gradually over time as teams learned to work out their boundary relations and transitioned to integrated pluralism. these findings provide new insights into how individuals and teams can work together to tackle the unique boundary management challenges presented by multiteam structures and illuminate the dynamic trial and error process by which component teams can learn to both cooperate and compete. 17. title: relational work and the knowledge transfer process: rituals in rural ghana. authors: slavova, mira; metiu, anca. abstract: we advance understandings of knowledge transfer by showing the central role of symbolic action, taking the form of ritual, in contexts characterized by worldview differences. using qualitative data from interactions between farming communities in rural ghana and agriculture development specialists, we examine how rituals do relational work that enables informational work. we find that rituals (i.e., visits, value affirmations, gift-giving, prayer, performing, storytelling) do so by means of their functions�bracketing worldview differences, modeling collaboration between farmers and agriculture development specialists, and packaging new knowledge in displays of compatibility. our work also expands scholarship on the role of rituals in organizations and on management practices in africa. overall, our paper offers a complex, comprehensive view of knowledge transfer as involving both relational and informational work and relying on both symbolic action and tangible elements. 18. title: do managers' affiliation ties have a negative relationship with subordinates' interfirm mobility? evidence from large u.s. law firms. authors: carnahan, seth; rabier, maryjane; uribe, jose. abstract: we hypothesize that employee mobility between organizations will be lower when the organizations' managers share affiliation ties. we test this idea by examining interorganizational employee mobility between large corporate law practices. we find that a practice area is less likely to hire attorneys from a rival practice area when the leaders of the two practice areas attended the same law school at the same time, our proxy for the presence of an affiliation tie. the negative relationship is stronger for hiring higher-ranked attorneys, and it is driven by practice leaders from the same law school class. exploiting appointments of new practice leaders, we find a sharp and immediate decline in interorganizational mobility following an appointment that creates an affiliation tie between the leadership of the practice areas. although we cannot rule out the possibility that job seekers' preferences drive the results, we conclude that rival managers' ties deserve further scrutiny because they might limit the outside employment opportunities of their subordinates. 19. title: how inductive and deductive generalization shape the guilt-by-association phenomenon among firms: theory and evidence. authors: naumovska, ivana; zajac, edward j. abstract: this study advances and tests the notion that the phenomenon of guilt by association-- whereby innocent organizations are penalized due to their similarity to offending organizations-- is shaped by two distinct forms of generalization. we analyze how and why evaluators' interpretative process following instances of corporate misconduct will likely include not only inductive generalization (rooted in similarity judgments and prototype-based categorization) but also deductive generalizing (rooted in evaluators' theories and causal-based categorization). we highlight the role and relevance of this neglected distinction by extending guilt-by-association predictions to include two unique predictions based on deductive generalization. first, we posit a recipient effect: if an innocent organization falls under a negative stereotype that causally links the innocent firm with corporate misconduct, then that innocent firm will suffer a greater negative spillover effect, irrespective of its similarity to the offending firm. second, we also posit a transmission effect: if the offending firm falls under the same negative stereotype, then the negative spillover effect to other similar firms will be lessened. we also analyze how media discourse can foster negative stereotypes, and thus amplify these two effects. we find support for our hypotheses in an analysis of stock market reactions to corporate misconduct for all u.s. and international firms using reverse mergers to gain publicly traded status in the united states. we discuss the implications of our theoretical perspective and empirical findings for research on corporate misconduct, guilt by association, and stock market prejudice. 20. title: congruence between leadership gender and organizational claims affects the gender composition of the applicant pool: field experimental evidence. authors: abraham, mabel; burbano, vanessa. abstract: the extent to which men and women sort into different jobs and organizations�namely, gender differences in supply-side labor market processes�is a key determinant of workplace gender composition. this study draws on theories of congruence to uncover a unique organization-level driver of gender differences in job seekers' behavior. we first argue and show that congruence between leadership gender and organizational claims is a key mechanism that drives job seekers' interest. specifically, many organizational claims are gender-typed, such that social claims activate the female stereotype, whereas business claims activate the male stereotype. thus, whereas female-led organizations making social claims are gender-congruent, male-led firms making the same claims are gender-incongruent. beyond demonstrating a general preference among job seekers for congruence, we also find that female job seekers are most interested in working for organizations that are simultaneously congruent and provide credible signals that they are fair and equitable employers. the congruence of leadership gender and organizational claims thus affects the gender composition of applicant pools for otherwise identical jobs. 21. title: no-fly zone in the loan office: how chief executive officers' risky hobbies affect credit stakeholders' evaluation of firms. authors: ouyang, bo; tang, yi; wang, chong; zhou, jian. abstract: the extant research has often examined the work-related experiences of corporate executives, but their off-the-job activities could be just as insightful. this study employs a novel proxy for the risky hobbies of chief executive officers (ceos)�ceos' hobby of piloting a private aircraft�and investigates its effect on credit stakeholders' evaluation of the firms led by the ceos as reflected in bank loan contracting. using a longitudinal data set on ceos of large united states-listed firms across multiple industries between 1993 and 2010, we obtain strong evidence that bank loans to firms steered by ceos who fly private jets as a hobby tend to incur a higher cost of debt, to be secured, to have more covenants, and to be syndicated. these effects are mainly driven by banks, which perceive such firms as having a higher default risk. these relationships become stronger when the ceo is more important to the firm and/or can exercise stronger control over decision making. supplemented by field interviews, our results are also robust to various endogeneity checks using different experimental designs, the heckman two-stage model, a propensity score-matching approach, a difference-in-differences test, and the impact threshold of confounding variables. 22. title: how business models evolve in weak institutional environments: the case of jumia, the amazon.com of africa. authors: peprah, augustine awuah; giachetti, claudio; larsen, marcus m.; rajwani, tazeeb s. abstract: we advance research on the antecedents of business model design by integrating institutional and imitation theories to explore how the business model of new ventures evolves in a weak institutional environment. based on a case study of jumia�an online retailing company in africa established with the aim to emulate the success of amazon.com�we propose a process model entitled "imitate-but-modify" that explains how business models evolve through four distinct phases (i.e., clarification, legitimacy, localization, and consolidation). in essence, this model explains how new ventures surrounded by considerable uncertainty deliberately seek to learn vicariously by imitating the business model template of successful firms. however, because of significant institutional voids, the ventures' intentional imitation is progressively replaced by experiential learning that blends business model imitation with innovation. 23. title: formal hierarchy as a source of upward status disagreement? a theoretical perspective. authors: yap, andy j.; madan, nikhil; puranam, phanish. abstract: formal hierarchies may be presumed to reduce uncertainty about the status ordering of employees as they imply a consistent global ranking. however, formal hierarchies in organizations are not merely linear, but are characterized by branching and nesting (i.e., they comprise subunits within the organization and subunits within other subunits), which creates a local ranking of individuals within each subunit. this can create tension between global and local formal ranks as status cues. moreover, individuals may also draw on informal status cues that are inconsistent with formal ranks. consequently, organizational members may experience upward status disagreement (usd), whereby each assumes they have higher status than the other. we offer a theoretical model that identifies important conditions under which cues arising from the structure of the formal hierarchy�either on their own or in conjunction with informal status cues�can be a source of usd. we also explore when usd can result in status conflict and identify moderators of this relationship. our research has implications for how the frequency of usd can be mitigated as organizational structures become more complex and the workforce becomes increasingly diverse. 24. title: responsibility and organization science: integrating micro and macro perspectives. authors: aguilera, ruth v.; waldman, david a.; siegel, donald s. abstract: responsibility is an important issue in organizations and society. employees, managers, and owners can behave responsibly in the workplace and beyond. in addition, these individuals can be influenced by the propensity of the organization to behave responsibly. organizations can pursue strategies that take into account responsibility at the product, firm, industry, and societal levels. this virtual special issue examines 19 articles published in organization science that consider responsibility at multiple levels of analysis. an important theme that emerges is that although some studies have crossed levels of analysis, future research would benefit from cross-level or more meso-based approaches.    &')035679ab��ʹ�ʙʇx�d\oa: hp9�hp9�h�"�hu<�5�ojqj^jh�ud5�ojqj^jo(h�"�h�"�o(&h�"�h�"�5�cjojqj^jajo(h 2e5�cjojqj^jaj#hp9�hp9�5�cjojqj^jaj h��5�cjojqj^jajo(hp9�5�cjojqj^jaj hp9�5�cjojqj^jajo(#h�"�h�"�5�cjojqj^jaj h$-�5�cjojqj^jajo(#hp9�hp9�5�cjojqj^jaj678� ��h ����p�w!x!�! 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